Comics, a form of American popular culture, offer a window into the past, allowing researchers to follow social changes over several decades. The purpose of this study was to determine if, how, and how much female gender roles have changed in Marvel comics from the Silver Age (1960) to the present (2014) to help understand how popular culture portrays and treats women. the female characters. It is hypothesized that female gender roles in Marvel comics in the last decade have become less stereotypical and more equitable compared to the 1960s, as determined by the seven-point quantifiable rubric. the seven-item rubric was subjected to interrater reliability tests twice, with ten experienced raters. The researcher reviewed 68 Marvel titles for a total of 788 Marvel comics broken down by decade from 1960 to 2014.
quantitative content analysis determined that the overall average female gender role score for marvel comics increased steadily per decade from 12.20 for 1960 to 1969 to 22.50 for 2010 to 2014, which supported the hypothesis and was significant at p = .001. results were also tracked for the seven categories of the rubric between 1960 and 1969 and between 2010 and 2014, respectively (score range 0 to 5): average cover art (0.39 to 2.61), bechdel test (1.21 to 2.72), argument (2.55 to 4.00), occupation (1.50 to 3.16), balance of power (1.45 to 3.14), female sexualization (1.88 to 3.53) and violence against women (3.22 to 3.32) with importance observed in these subgroups.
You are reading: Gender roles in comic books
according to bradford wright (2001), “few enduring expressions of American popular culture are as instantly recognizable and yet as misunderstood as comic books… just as each generation writes its own history, so each reads its own comic books” . (p. 1). comics are a litmus test for pop culture itself. comics don’t exist in a vacuum. they are infused with the thoughts, feelings, and values of their writers and readers. female gender roles in comics often reflect these values and attitudes, and both illustrate and narrate the year they were published.
Popular culture and comics offer the reader an inside look at how society functioned when they were written. according to dr. Christina Blanch (2013), “A benefit of analyzing gender through comics is the ability to track attitudes over time” (para. 5). comic books often parallel American culture, values, and politics.
During the 1940s, comic book art inspired and often imitated life. 1940s comics inspired women to be more than housewives. the authors sought to inspire women to become part of the war effort, to leave their homes, enter the workforce, and fill positions previously held by men. This was the golden age of comics and the decade when superheroines were dubbed symbols of American strength, freedom, patriotism, and independence (Larew, 1997, p. 592).
With the end of World War II and the return of the male workforce, women were once again relegated to the home. there was a backlash and a return to conservative family values in which men were the breadwinners and women the housewives. comic books reflected the swing of society’s conservative pendulum regarding female gender roles. by the late 1950s, female superheroes were slowly dying out. first, they were treated as helpless sidekicks to their male counterparts. then, they began to disappear completely. As women were pushed out of the public sphere, they also disappeared from comics (Larew, 1997, p. 596).
Women are often marginalized in the superhero universe as they are in American culture. comics frequently perpetuate social or cultural gender stereotypes, or both. For many young children, comics act as an agent of socialization, modeling social values and gender roles (ito, 1994, p. 90).
Traditionally, comics have been aimed at male readers. according to a 1995 survey, around 13.41% of comic book readers were women. The average age of the women was between 25 and 35 years old, considerably older than the average of 16 to 24 years for the men (EMAD, 2006, pp. 969-970). today, young women represent 46.67% of comic book readers (schenker, 2014, para. 5).
“In recent years, the market for female superheroes in comics seems to be moving more strongly towards female lead characters” (Palmer, 2008, p. 3). With the introduction from 2013 to 2014 of four new superheroines: Angela, the Assassin of Asgard, Jane Foster as Thor, Kamala Khan as Ms. marvel, and carol danvers as captain marvel, it seems that marvel comics is moving in that direction. however, empirical data is still needed. There have only been tangential studies of comics, looking at female gender roles. Of these, most only documented Japanese comics or planet comics rather than Marvel comics, and typically only looked at the covers.
The most comprehensive study of comics that analyzed female gender roles was Karl Larew’s “Planet Women: The Image of Women in Planet Comics, 1940 1953” (1997). analyzed the number of female superheroes in comics on the planet from the golden age and the number of times they appeared on the covers of the comics (p. 592). In addition to Larew’s, only two other quantitative comics studies of female gender roles have been completed: Kinko Ito (1994) “Images of Women in Weekly Male Comic Magazines in Japan” and Erik Palmer’s (2008) Dissertation” superheroes and gender roles, 1961 2004″. Ito looked only at contemporary Japanese publications, while Palmer looked only at Marvel Comics covers.
according to dr. Erik Palmer (2008), “a robust quantitative analysis in the style of this study covering a greater variety of titles over a longer period of time could provide valuable support” (p. 13). “content analysis tries to find what is communicated in the documents… as a sociological methodology, content analysis is easy to use (discreet) and quite cheap” (ito, 1994, p. 83). Larew analyzed the Golden Age Planet comics by decade, while Palmer analyzed the Marvel cover art in eight-year segments. comics are roughly divided into six ages: the golden age (1930 to 1959), the silver age (1960 to 1969), the bronze age (1970 to 1979), the plastic age (1980 to 1999), the of the Renaissance (2000 to 2009), and the present (2010 to 2014).
From these very limited quantitative studies and other research, seven indicators of female gender roles or status were developed. indicators or categories include: comic book cover, bechdel test, plot, occupation, balance of power, female sexualization, and violence against women.
analysis of comic book covers seems to be the only consistent factor that researchers have explored. These explorations include the number of women on the cover, the number of female superheroes relative to the number of male characters, the size and proportion of female characters, and their activity, passivity, or both (Larew, 1997, p. 596).
The next indicator and possibly the least known is the bechdel test. The test was developed by Alison Bechdel, an American cartoonist, in her comic strip “The Rule”. originally created as a test for film, it has been adapted for television and is flexible enough to be used with other media. the bechdel test has three criteria: the first is that the material must have at least two named female characters; second, those two female characters must talk to each other; and third, that the conversation should be about something other than men (ulaby, 2014).
“female gender roles in comics often reflect values and attitudes [of their writers and readers], and illustrate and relate to the year they were published.”
writers often overlook the female perspective, because male stories are considered dominant or universal (scheiner-fisher, 2012, p. 222). this is true in comics and other literature. In the golden age of comics, female characters were used almost exclusively as companions or sidekicks to their male counterparts.
they rarely had arguments of their own (larew, 1997, p. 598). often the female characters were treated as window dressing. traditionally, stories give meaning to life and shape gender roles. According to Marvel Senior Vice President Tom Brevoort, “It’s not that you can’t have a successful or well-written female superhero, but in general, historically, proportionately, we haven’t had that many” (Rogers, 2011, paragraph 14).
In addition to occupations being a strong indicator of female status, roles are important in comics because superheroes have secret identities. In the golden age and early silver age of comics, female characters often had no occupation, role, or even name (Jones, 2014). They were just window dressing. those who had occupations were often limited to caregiving roles (ito, 1994, p. 88). “The female superhero was placed on a pedestal of achievement, playing with children and developing strength and identity in areas not traditionally available to women. But as women in a mostly male universe, they symbolically had nowhere to go except into the roles of women. who were recognizable and familiar” (d’amore, 2012, p. 1229). For example, susan storm, also known as the invisible woman, was a very powerful superhero in her own right, but was relegated to the role of girlfriend, wife and mother (dunne, 2006, p. 6).
The fifth indicator regarding female gender roles is the balance of power between male and female characters. “Surely You’ve Realized. Female Superheroes Aren’t As Revered As Male Superheroes,” from “Equal Fights” (O’Reilly, 2005, p. 273). Until 1960, most superhero and sidekick associations were exclusively male. After that, many female superheroes wouldn’t exist without their male counterparts, for example: Hulk and She-Hulk, Spider-Man and Spider-Woman, and Captain Marvel and Ms. Wonderful. female characters in comics depended on their male counterparts to rescue them, care for them, make decisions for them, and give them a purpose in life (emad, 2006). women were almost invisible and certainly not in any position to make decisions (ito, 1994, p. 87).
From 1954 to 2005, the comics industry was regulated and censored by the comics code authority. From its inception, the anti-comics crusade was concerned with gender roles, sexuality, and violence, especially in relation to women (d’amore 1227). and yet, female sexualization is a very prominent feature of the comics, focusing especially on large breasts, long legs, and tiny waists. “more precisely, the portrayal of female characters throughout the comics is based on and continues to perpetuate the idea that women are mere objects of desire, basically submissive and ineffectual creatures whose virtue lies in the lewd display of their bodies” ( jones, 2014, paragraph 2).
“it is hypothesized that female gender roles in marvel comics over the past decade have become less stereotypical and more equitable.”
comics have traditionally exploited women for male readers, so violence against women is the seventh indicator. women often play the role of perpetual victims in comics. they are threatened, kidnapped, assaulted, humiliated, raped, and often killed (Larew, 1997, p. 602).
materials and accessories methods
comics scores
at least 100 marvel comics were collected from each era: 1960 to 1969, 1970 to 1979, 1980 to 1989, 1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2009, and 2010 to 2014. a seven point scoring rubric was established for all the comics. designed at rcampus.com with each category scored from zero to five, so that the highest possible score a comic could cumulatively receive was 35. Each comic was scored in seven categories: the bechdel test, cover, story, occupation, balance of power, female sexualization and violence against women.
xl stat software procedure
After creating the seven-point rating rubric on rcampus.com, 10 experienced raters and the researcher rated the same comic using the rubric to test inter-rater reliability. Based on the evaluators’ comments and the comparison of their scores, the rubric was revised and the inter-rater reliability test was repeated so that the average scores differed by less than 0.5 points. Observing this degree of variability, the researcher reviewed 788 selected comics for a minimum of 100 comics per decade (1960 to 2014).
The total scores (maximum of 35 points) and the scores per category (maximum of 5 points) were recorded for each comic strip of the content analysis of the rubric. these scores were ordered by the following year categories with at least 100 comics subject to rubric analysis for each: 1960 to 1969, 1970 to 1979, 1980 to 1989, 1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2009, and 2010 to 2014. the rubric Average scores were analyzed for statistically significant changes over time.
results
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The purpose of this study was to determine if, how, and by how much female gender roles in Marvel comics have changed from the Silver Age (1960s) to the present to help understand how popular culture portrays and treats women. women and female characters. It is hypothesized that female gender roles in Marvel comics over the past decade have become less stereotypical and more equitable as determined by the seven-point quantifiable rubric compared to the 1960s through analysis For quantitative content, average female gender role scores for Marvel comics increased steadily per decade from 12.20 in the 1960s to 22.50 between 2010 and 2014. ANOVA statistical analysis was performed using XL-X software. stat. significance was found and the null hypothesis was rejected. t-tests were then performed to determine the location of significance. comparing data from 2010 to 2014 with each decade, a very high significance of 0.001 was found for all time periods between 1960 and 2009.
The researcher reviewed 788 Marvel comics from the Silver Age (1960) to the present day (2014). Content analysis was broken down by decade: 1960 to 1969, 1970 to 1979, 1980 to 1989, 1990 to 1999, 2000 to 2009, and 2010 to 2014. A minimum of 100 Marvel comics were reviewed per decade. the titles of the 68 revised comics are listed in appendix 1.
The 48 data sets analyzed included the seven main categories of the rubric and one statistical category, the overall total score for female gender roles. these eight categories were analyzed for statistically significant changes by decade. An anova statistical analysis was performed with the xl-stat software and t-tests were performed to determine significance.
discussion
the purpose of this study was to determine if, how and to what extent female gender roles have changed in marvel comics from the silver age (1960) to the present in order to propose a hypothesis on how popular culture portrays and deals with women and female characters. Female gender roles in Marvel Comics over the past decade were predicted to have become less stereotypical and more equitable as determined by the seven-point quantifiable rubric compared to the 1960s through quantitative content analysis Average female gender role scores for Marvel comics increased steadily by decade from 12.20 in the 1960s to 22.50 from 2010 to 2014.
An anova statistical analysis was performed with the xlstat software and the variations were found to be significant, so t-tests were performed to determine the degree of significance. comparing the data from 2010 to 2014 with those of each decade, p = .001 was determined for all the time periods between 1960 and 2009 (figures 1 to 8).
For female gender roles on Marvel covers: Between 1960 and 1969, there was not a single rubric cover score greater than two, while there were fourteen perfect scores between 2010 and 2014 (Figure 1). This study showed a fairly steady improvement in the representation of women on the covers of Marvel comics from 1960, where they were almost non-existent, to 2014, where the representation was almost equal between male and female characters. there was a decrease in the range from 1990 to 1999 of 0.06, which was statistically insignificant. the overall increase in the score could be attributed to the increase in female characters, writers, artists, illustrators, and readers (chenault, 2007).
The results of this study were superior to those compiled by dr. Erik Palmer in his analysis of three Marvel titles (The Avengers, Fantastic Four, and X-Men), spanning from 1960 to 2004. Palmer documented that women were represented on less than 15% of the Marvel comic covers he published. reviewed in the 1960s and early 1970s. He noted the increase in the representation of female characters on the cover to more than 24% in the late 1970s and only slightly higher until 2004 (Palmer, 2008 ). this study, with its much larger sample of 68 marvel comic titles, documented female representation on 32% of marvel covers from the 1960s. female representation jumped to 70% in the 1970s with a huge number of published group or team titles, after falling between 48% and 49% in the 1980s and 1990s, rising to 64% in 2000 and 67% in 2014.
“over the past decade, marvel comics have created more women’s titles than ever before, with female readership now exceeding 46% of the market (jones, 2015).
Originally designed for film analysis and adapted for use with other media, this marks the first time the bechdel test has been used in comic analysis of female dialogue. The results of the bechdel test in this context showed a slow and steady improvement in female dialogue scores from 1960 to 2014 with a slight decrease in the range from 1990 to 1999 (figure 2). the 1990s, in many of the categories in this study’s rubric, showed a decline in scores possibly due to a conservative backlash in American society and the downsizing of the comics industry. According to Jennie Whitwood, author of The Changing Role of Women in Comics, “Although these female superheroes exist in both the DC and Marvel worlds, they have a history of being little more than masterpieces, scantily clad, large breasted and generally useless ladies in lycra” (Jones, 2014). this unenthusiastic and lackluster period of comics is known as the plastic era (1980 to 1999) during which everything and everyone was disposable.
Based on this study’s scores on female representation on marvel comic covers and their bechdel test scores, there may be a connection between female visual representation and the quality of female dialogue present in marvel comics. comics. apart from the coverage score from the 1960s and the bechdel test score from the 1980s, the scores in these categories are very similar.
for female gender roles in marvel comics stories, there was a steady improvement in stories related to female gender roles from 2.55 in 1960 to 4.00 in 2014, except in the range of 1980 to 1989 and from 1990 to 1999 (figure 3). in the early 1960s, the lack of female characters and their interactions was often overlooked, because the male perspective used to be the dominant story in comics. “women’s history is generally left out of the traditionally male-dominated history curriculum; when it is included, it is usually found in the margins or sidebars” (scheiner-fisher & russell, 2012).
This is how the phenomenon of the two-panel woman was born, a term coined by this researcher in comics. the two-panel woman is a female character who appears in two comic panels just to cook dinner or calm a baby, for example, and then disappears. she is a one-dimensional character that has nothing to do with the plot of the comic.
according to this study, the phenomenon of the two-panel woman was a dominant force in marvel stories in the 1980s and 1990s. further study could show how this phenomenon may have affected the stories, female occupations and the number of readers.
for female occupations in marvel comics, a slow and steady improvement in female occupations in marvel comics was seen from 1.50 in the 1960s to 3.16 in 2014 with a drop in scores of the headings from 1990 to 2009 (figure 4). stories may not have been the only thing affected by the cultural backlash of the 1990s.
It may also have affected the female occupations portrayed in marvel comics and their female audiences. According to Marvel comics writer and artist Trina Robbins, “Comics changed. There were very few female superheroes who had their own titles…there was nothing for girls to read anymore” (Chenault, 2007).
for balance of power in marvel comics, there was a steady slow increase in rubric scores from 1.45 in 1960 to 3.14 in 2014. this category was one of the only ones that was unaffected by the trend of the 1990s (figure 5). this could be explained by the cultural phenomenon of more women breaking the glass ceiling of business at the end of the millennium documented in comics.
For female sexualization in Marvel comics, average scores declined rapidly in 1970 and 1980, plateaued between 1990 and 2009, and rose sharply between 2010 and 2014. One explanation for these erratic scores was “comic code” (figure 6). with the backlash to conservative family values and gender roles of the 1950s, it was created to address concerns about objectification and female violence, especially changing female gender roles and so-called lesbian and sadomasochistic fantasies portrayed in the comics (d’love, 2012).
the code was strictly enforced during the 1960s, so comic book writers and illustrators began to take pride in getting around its restrictions, especially during the 1980s. marvel comics began to tire of and ignore the code in the mid-1980s. the 1990s (tipton, 2008). In the past decade, Marvel Comics has created more female characters than ever before, and female readership now exceeds 46% of the market (Jones, 2014). these cultural shifts may help explain rubric scores over the decades, especially the skyrocketing in 2014.
In this category, the head-to-head test played a significant role in scoring. the test is used to observe whether or not a character’s illustration conforms to the actual human anatomy. on the television show, the judges always criticized the creations based on their ability to exist in nature, with anatomically disproportionate creations scoring considerably lower. this researcher pointed out on numerous occasions that the proportions of many female characters could not exist in real life. for example, they lacked full rib cages, internal organs, a backbone, or the ability to stand upright without being pulled on by their breasts. in particular, the better a character did in the unofficial head-to-head test, the better the rubric score for that comic. More research could be done to look at trends in anatomical illustrations in comics.
for violence against women in marvel comics, there was very little change from violence against women at 3.22 in 1960 and 3.32 in 2014, and when comparing 1960 to 1969 with 2010 to 2014 , violence against women seems to remain constant (figure 7).
for the total average female gender role scores in marvel comics, this data seemed to confirm his prediction. Female gender roles in Marvel comics over the past decade were predicted to become less stereotypical and more equitable as determined by the seven-point quantifiable rubric. As noted above, the total female gender role rubric score went from 12.20 in 1960, rising slowly and steadily until 1999, and then jumping to 17.58 in 2009, and skyrocketing to 22.50 in 2014. From 2010 to 2014, in At no time in the history of the Marvel Universe have so many female characters been released, rebooted, and hyped from comic book titles (Fingeroth, 2014), including She-Hulk, Captain Marvel, Scarlet Witch, Miss America, Angela Assassin of Asgard, Thor, Storm. , kamala khan as em. marvel, and the first all-female x-men team.
If additional funding and time become available in the future, this research study could be enhanced or replicated with the use of multiple raters of comic rubrics rather than the single investigator used in this study. this would strengthen the credibility of the results.
One area that may have impacted and/or changed the results of this study was the unplanned randomization of comics from 1960 to 1990 drawn for this study by a state bowling college graduate student. this graduate student randomly drew comics for researcher review, so there was no formal randomization pattern for order of review, selection, etc. also, there was subject bias that affected the results of this study; for example, the researcher’s overall reading preference for female characters may have affected the results. the researcher randomly pulled comics from 2000 to 2014 from public library collections as well as the researcher’s personal collection. with the dramatic increase in overall rubric scores from 2000 to 2014, the hypothesis would still have been supported.
“comics reflected the swing of society’s conservative pendulum regarding female gender roles.”
Female comic book characters and female gender roles have certainly come a long way in the last fifty-five years. Female gender roles in comics have changed and grown to illustrate society’s ever-changing views of women and their role in American culture.
acknowledgments
I want to thank ray & Pat Browne Library for Popular Culture Studies and its donors to William T. jerome library at bowling green state university. In addition to the library itself, I must personally thank Alex Koch for his help with the selection of Marvel comics and the random selection of series reviewed.
references
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appendix
list of all reviewed comics:
a-babies vs. x-babies, the amazing spider-man, the amazing x-men, angela asgard killer, the annihilators, the amazing ant-man, the amazing x-men, the avengers, avengers vs x-men, captain marvel, the champions, classic x-men, cyclops and phoenix, the daily bugler, daredevil, daredevil and black widow, dark phoenix, dc vs marvel, deadpool, the defenders, excalibur, fall of the hulks, fantastic four, generation x, horseman ghost, smash hulk, the incredible hulk, the invincible iron man, iron man, magneto, marvel super heroes, the mighty thor, ms. marvel, namor, the new avengers, nightcrawler, power man, ravage 2099, rocket raccoon, the fugitives, satana, the savage she-hulk, secret invasion, the sensational she-hulk, the silver surfer, spider-man vs. wolverine, spider woman, storm, supervillain, outlast, tales to amaze, tales of suspense, thor, triple action, the last spider man, the last ones, ultimatum 2099, strange x-men, the strange x force, venom 2099, world war hulk, wolverine, x-factor, x-force, x-men, x-men adventures, x-men fairy tales, and young avengers.
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